home page (page 1)
home page (page 2)
E-Book
email:
jag8@cornell.edu
johngowan@earthlink.net
The Charges of Matter are Symmetry Debts of Light
The conceptual basis of the
Unified Field Theory as presented in these pages may be
deduced from "Noether's Theorem":
The charges of matter are symmetry debts
of light.
The "Big Bang" origin of the cosmos is the conversion of pure, symmetric electromagnetic energy (light) into asymmetric atomic "information" (our "matter only" universe). "Noether's Theorem" states that in a multicomponent field such as the electromagnetic field (or the metric field of spacetime), symmetries are associated with conservation laws and vice-versa. Hence the symmetry of light (and spacetime) must be conserved. Noether's Theorem provides the key to Einstein's dream of a "Unified Field Theory" through the seminal concept that the symmetry of light, no less than its energy, must be conserved.See:
(Questions such as "What existed before the "Big Bang"?" (probably the Multiverse) and "Why is there something rather than nothing?" (because of the possibility of life) are questions for philosophy/religion, not science. In what follows, I conceive of the "Big Bang" as a "breakout" from the all-symmetric Multiverse into the asymmetric realm of atomic matter, information, time, causality, gravity, entropy, charge, etc.)
Our asymmetric "matter-only" Universe was created (in the "Big Bang") from all-symmetric free electromagnetic energy (light), via an unknown asymmetric weak-force interaction, resulting in a loss of cosmic symmetry and a corresponding, compensating gain in symmetry-conserving (charge-conserving) bound energy states ("atomic matter"). For conservation reasons (energy/entropy/symmetry), matter is furthermore embedded in a secondary entropic and causal domain (historic spacetime), created by gravity from light's primary entropic and a-causal domain (space). The negative energy of gravity not only creates time from space, it also balances the positive energy of the "Big Bang" such that no net energy is required to produce our cosmos. Our "matter-only" Universe is the original "light-only" universe (still with us today as the universal spatial dimension with its 2.7 kelvin "cosmic background radiation"), plus a small portion which (following primordial symmetry-breaking) was "frozen" by symmetry conservation (charge conservation) into various familiar material forms (present today as atomic matter, gravity, and historic spacetime). Today's (low-energy) "matter" atom is exactly one-half of an original (high-energy) charge-balanced (neutral, symmetric) "matter-antimatter" particle-pair, which somehow escaped annihilation by its complementary member (see: primordial symmetry-breaking by the weak force during the "Big Bang"). Hence the charges of matter, originally intended to conserve symmetry via matter-antimatter annihilations, remain, due to the absence of antimatter, as unbalanced symmetry debts of light. In matter, light's (broken) symmetries are conserved by charge and spin; in spacetime, light's metric symmetries are protected by the invariance of "velocity c", inertial/entropic forces, Einstein's "Interval", causality, "Lorentz Invariance" (phenomena associated with the Special Theory of Relativity), and conserved (when broken) by gravitational forces associated with "local" mass ("Gm" - phenomena associated with the General Theory of Relativity).
All forms of energy originate (directly or indirectly) from light; matter carries charges (including gravity) which are the symmetry debts of the light which created it. Charges produce forces which act to return the material system to its original symmetric state (light), repaying matter's primordial symmetry debts. Repayment is exampled by any spontaneous interaction producing net free energy, including: exothermic chemical reactions and matter-antimatter annihilation reactions; radioactivity, particle and proton decay; the nucleosynthetic pathway of stars, the gravitational conversion of bound to free energy (as in supernovas and quasars), and Hawking's "quantum radiance" of black holes. Identifying the broken symmetries of light associated with each of the 4 charges and forces of physics (see below) is the first step toward a conceptual "Unified Field Theory".In weak gravitational fields (as on planet Earth), gravity only pays the entropy "interest" on the spatial symmetry debt of "local" matter (which is carried as "location charge": Gm), converting space to time, in effect producing an alternative entropic drive and dimension/domain (time/history) in which charge conservation (and causality) are serviced by an indefinitely extended temporal duration and consequential ("karmic") significance. In stronger fields (as in our Sun), gravity additionally pays down the "principal" of matter's spatial symmetry debt, converting asymmetric "local" mass to symmetric "non-local" light. This latter conversion continues in supernovas and quasars, and finally goes to completion via Hawking's "quantum radiance" of black holes. The conversion of mass to light reduces the total gravitational field of the cosmos, resulting in the apparent "acceleration" of cosmic expansion, recently observed (see: Science 7 Oct. 2011 Vol. 334 Page 30). (See: "A Description of Gravity".)
The symmetry-conserving requirement of charge invariance, through time, despite entropy, and despite relative, variable, and contingent forces of motion/acceleration, is the key to understanding the rationale for the local action of the "4 forces" ("global/local gauge forces"), including quantization of charge and the "Lorentz Invariance" and magnetism of Special Relativity. In the mathematical terms of Evariste Galois' "Group Theory", our "Tetrahedron Model" is a description of the symmetry group of light, including its destruction by asymmetric weak force decays (resulting in our asymmetric "matter-only" Cosmos), and the on-going spontaneous restoration of cosmic symmetry in obedience to Noether's Theorem of symmetry conservation (as in the conversion of bound to free energy in stars). (See: Neuenschwander, Dwight E. Emmy Noether's Wonderful Theorem. 2011. The Johns Hopkins University Press.)
Biology is included in our physical unification scheme through the notion of "information": information charts a "lawful" (charge-conserved) pathway for matter's return to light's symmetry, while simultaneously producing a way for the universe to achieve localized consciousness, know itself in part as well as in whole, and diversify its experience and creativity through a multitude of evolutionary forms. Life is the rationale for the existence of the universe. While atomic nuclei promote symmetry conservation through high-energy, exothermic nucleosynthetic pathways in stars, their associated electron shells create life through low-energy, neg-entropic chemical pathways on planets. Using energy and heavy elements ultimately provided by gravity, stars, and the galaxy, the "Information Pathway" of planetary biology is the means whereby the universe comes to life, awakens to itself, achieves consciousness, experiences and elaborates itself, explores new modes of creativity (including abstract/symbolic modes), and evolves new forms of beauty and symmetry. Carbon's electron shell is the crucial link between the abiotic and biotic information systems of the Cosmos; the concepts of Information and the Multiverse are crucial links between our scientific and religious world views. "We come trailing clouds of glory..."
(See also: "The Higgs Boson and the Alternative Charge Carriers".) (See also: "The Information Pathway".)
Addendum to Abstract:
Two outstanding (and connected) characteristics distinguish our universe: 1) it is asymmetric, composed of matter only, lacking its original, balancing complement of antimatter; 2) it contains Life.
The connection between these two asymmetric states of energy is Information. The atomic realm of matter left from the "Big Bang" origin of our universe is a domain of material information from which the biological realm (characterized (so far as we know) only by molecular information chains of RNA/DNA), arises by an unknown chemical concatenation, crucially involving the carbon atom.
In essence, Life is a specialized state of information that can, in "friendly" environments, reproduce and maintain itself, and evolve new living forms. The dreaded "computer apocalypse" (in which computers become capable of creating and informing themselves) in fact has already happened naturally eons ago in the form of the biologic genetic material. Earth-life and humanity are the local consequence of that original "information apocalypse", a natural catastrophe foreseen by God (as recorded in Genesis in the story of the "forbidden fruit"). We are witnessing a fractal iteration of this story in humanities' control of evolution, and control of abstract information itself through the computer revolution. (The "zombie apocalypse" is also upon us; they are walking the streets everywhere, staring into their "smart phones". Who controls them?)
Equally mysterious as the journey from atoms to life is the transition from "nothing to something", from the "all-symmetric void" (the "Multiverse"), to the asymmetric domain of atomic matter (absent antimatter) during the "Big Bang". The transition apparently passes through several energy levels regulated by "Higgs"-type "gauge" bosons and their associated "intermediate vector boson" families (all necessary for purposes of conservation). These transitions begin with the creation (from high energy photons) of heavy particle-antiparticle pairs of elementary leptons, followed by the creation of electrically neutral leptoquarks (heavy leptons subdivided into three quarks), and finally the asymmetric weak force decay of electrically neutral leptoquarks into a residue of familiar matter-only hyperons (heavy baryons) and nucleons (protons and neutrons). Heavy higgs-like bosons and their associated IVBs gauge and regulate all steps in the transformation, ensuring the eventual possibility of conservation (as via the creation of specific antiparticles). The utility/necessity of "identity" charges for conservation purposes (as carried in explicit form by neutrinos) becomes evident when keeping track of all the possible particles and antiparticles in these transformations. This is also where the vital role of alternative charge carriers (leptons, mesons, neutrinos) becomes evident, in that they allow charge conservation despite the absence of anti-matter.
The "break-out" of our asymmetric universe from the all-symmetric "Multiverse" is (apparently) possible only because electromagnetic energy exists in two equivalent forms, waves vs particle-antiparticle pairs (light vs virtual particle-pairs); positive electromagnetic energy is exactly balanced by negative gravitational energy; alternative charge carriers exist to allow charge conservation despite the absence of anti-matter; the subdivision of leptons into quarks makes electrically neutral leptons ("leptoquarks") possible; the weak force provides a slight but essential asymmetry in the decay rate of electrically neutral leptoquarks vs antileptoquarks (such that following the matter-antimatter annihilations of the "Big Bang", sufficient electrically neutral leptoquarks remain to produce (via their decay) the baryons (hyperons, protons, and neutrons) comprising our current universe. The significance of the Higgs boson is that this type of "gauge" particle (apparently more than one exists) offers a conserved pathway of escape from the all-symmetric Multiverse into the manifest, asymmetric, 4-D realm of time and gravity. The Higgs boson appears to be strictly analogous to Eve's apple. If not the "God particle" itself, the Higgs is at least the "creativity particle".
(Abstract revised Nov., 2018.)
Note (2): The format of this paper ("Row 1", "Row 2", etc.) follows a 4x4 table which the reader should access and print out for ready reference (also available at the end of this paper). A very simple rendering of this table is available at: 4x3 table. This table provides a convenient way to organize an extensive subject matter, and is furthermore part of a "General System, or Fractal Model of the Universe, which facilitates comparison and correlation with other "world systems". The introductory papers: ""Synopsis of the Unification Theory: The System of Spacetime" and ""Synopsis of the Unification Theory: The System of Matter", provide a general summary of the topic.
Note (3): Symmetry in nature is found in many forms. The mathematical symmetries of the four forces usually discussed by "establishment" physics in the context of unification are derived from the "group theory" of Evariste Galois, Sophus Lie, and Wilhelm Killing. These symmetries generally describe "rotations in phase space" in which particles, forces, and/or actions are rendered indistinguishable from one another (see Ian Stewart: "Why Beauty is Truth" (Basic Books 2007) for an expert discussion at the layman's level of the mathematical symmetries of the Lie groups). Because I worked independently of the mathematical physics "establishment", I discovered and used a different set of symmetries to achieve a unification among the forces. "My" symmetry principles are derived from (my own reading of) Noether's Theorem: the charges of matter are the symmetry debts of light. The two sets of symmetry principles actually complement each other, illustrating the great value of independent approaches to a common problem. Both come together in the "Table of the Higgs Bosons and Weak Force IVBs". For another view of the synthesis between my own and the establishment's version of unification, see: "The 'Tetrahedron Model' vs the 'Standard Model': A Comparison"; and: "A Short Course in the Unified Field Theory".
Note (4): In each of the four rows below I suggest a financial metaphor for the energetic process characteristic of the row, beginning with the assumption of a debt, followed by two contrasting payment modes, and ending with a full repayment of the debt. The intent is to help the reader gain an overview of, and feeling for, the unfolding energy budget of the Cosmos as outlined in this model, by reference to another quantitative, conserved, and energetic system with which we are all familiar.
How the Universe actually begins (for example, "inflationary" scenarios) is not considered in this account (see: "The Origin of Matter and Information" and "The Higgs Boson and the Weak Force IVBs" for "genesis" scenarios). I assume, however, that the initiating positive energy is completely balanced by some type of negative energy (such as gravity). Furthermore, it is not unreasonable to suppose that our Universe is but one of many (a member of the "multiverse"), whose unique physical constants are constrained by the "anthropic principle" (must allow the evolution of our life form), and the requirements of energy conservation.
Synopsis of Row One:
Illustrating the concordance of the sequence of forces in Row One with the sequence of forces in the "Higgs Cascade".The sequence of events in the first row is addressed in the paper and table describing the "Higgs Cascade". This sequence was originally established using "General Systems" intuitive criteria; many years later it was discovered to also conform to the rational series as delineated by the "Higgs Cascade".
In cell one we have the initial state of our Cosmos as it separated from the "Multiverse". This separation is effected and characterized by the set of "life friendly" or "anthropic" physical constants that eventually make possible the evolution of life and humanity on our own planet Earth. Cell one contains an unknown primordial physical state of energy described as "Ylem" by George Gamow. I presume the "Ylem" consists of a mixture of quarks and leptons, including most significantly, very heavy, primordial leptoquarks in matter-antimatter pairs. (Leptoquarks are heavy primordial leptons internally fractured into three quarks; an alternative description is primordial, heavy, colorless baryons). (See also: "The Origin of Matter and Information"; see also: "The Particle Table".)
The four forces of physics are combined in cell one, and will separate themselves one by one as the universe expands and cools. It is this 4-stage unfolding of forces that row one represents.
The most important feature of cell one - other than the "anthropic" value of its physical constants - is that it contains matter and antimatter in equal amounts, and consequently positive and negative forms of energy and charge in equal amounts (if they are all virtual particles), such that it contains no net charge and no net energy. If we are speaking of real particles, then the balancing negative energy is provided by gravitation. Hence our cosmos in its initial form can be separated from the Multiverse as a quantum fluctuation, a totally self-contained and internally conserved entity. (If our universe seems too large to be characterized as a "quantum fluctuation", perhaps we should ask instead: "What is the energy scale or "gauge" of the 'Multiverse'"?) I assume the mixture of gravitation with electromagnetic energy, when combined with the strong and weak forces, is instrumental in creating a bound form of electromagnetic energy (matter) from the free form (light). Cell and column one are named for the electromagnetic force, as our universe is an electromagnetic cosmos in both its free and bound energy forms, as matter-antimatter annihilations demonstrate. Column one deals with selected matters pertaining to the electromagnetic force and its boson or force carrier, the photon, including magnetism and the symmetry and entropy relations of light and its spatial conservation domain.
Gravity is the first force to separate itself from the primordial "Ylem", and so takes its place at the head of column two. In cell one, gravity is completely united with the other forces in the creation of bound energy forms (massive particles) from free energy (massless light). Hence we will find that particles and the spacetime metric are forever afterward to some degree intertwined (as is most remarkably demonstrated by the spontaneous creation of Heisenberg-Dirac virtual particles). But once gravity and the spacetime metric have participated in the creation of particle mass, gravity is immediately needed for another crucial task - the creation of time to govern the energy conservation accounts of these same newly created massive particles. The spatial metric of cell one governs the absolute motion of massless particles (photons) at velocity c, but cannot by itself regulate the relative motions of massive particles at velocities less than c. For this the time dimension is necessary; time is created by the gravitational annihilation of space and the extraction of a metrically equivalent temporal residue. (See: "The Creation of Time from Space".) Hence as soon as massive particles are created, a gravitational metric incorporating time as well as space must also be created to accommodate their energy conservation requirements. The time dimension also serves as the entropy drive of bound energy, creating and expanding the historical domain of matter (history contains matter's causal information field), the analog of, and alternative to, the spatial conservation domain conserving the energy and symmetry of light. Cell two and the column it heads therefore concerns all things temporal and gravitational, including history, the creation of time from space, black holes, and the composite gravitational metric of spacetime.
Column three represents the strong force of the color charge, the force holding quark triplets together in baryons. The strong force and its gluon field is naturally in third place as it is required to produce leptoquarks, a composite particle and not simply a massive monolithic elementary particle such as a lepton. The primordial mass carrier must be a composite particle in order that it may achieve electrical neutrality via the suitable choice and arrangement of its internal components (quarks) - as exampled by the neutron. Leptons by themselves always bear single electrical charges, which ordinarily can only be balanced by an anti-lepton, resulting inevitably in an annihilation reaction. In order to have some surviving matter particles after the general (primordial) annihilation of matter with antimatter, we must have an electrically neutral particle capable of undergoing an asymmetrical weak force decay (in cell four). Hence the necessity for the composite particle capable of arranging its quarks in an electrically neutral configuration, and hence also the necessity of the strong force to effect and bind this arrangement of internal parts. ( See: "The Strong Force: Two Expressions".) Column three therefore deals with the mass-carrying baryons and all matters pertaining to them and the strong force (solar fusion for example), including quarks, gluons, color charges, the elements of the periodic table, and the meson field of alternative charge carriers.
Column four remains to accommodate the mysterious and asymmetric weak force, the creator and destroyer of matter. Here also reside the alternative charge carriers (leptons, neutrinos), so necessary to circumventing annihilation reactions during the production of baryons and atomic matter, and the massive Higgs boson and Intermediate Vector Bosons (IVBs), responsible for gauging and effecting transformations among single elementary particles. It is the weak force which finally breaks the symmetry of the particle-antiparticle pairs and virtual reality, thrusting unpaired particles of atomic matter into "real" (temporal) existence in the asymmetric 4-dimensional realm of gravitational spacetime. Column four is therefore concerned with issues surrounding radioactivity, fission, alternative charge carriers, and all questions concerning the symmetry-breaking activity of the weak force, especially the creation and destruction of (single) elementary particles of invariant charge, mass, and spin.
Light
(including the entire spectrum of electromagnetic
radiation - "free" electromagnetic energy)
(row 1, cell 1)
The Universe begins with light (in physics, as in many "genesis" mythologies) - free electromagnetic energy - which is a perfectly symmetric energy form. Light is massless, carries no charges of any kind, produces no gravitational field, and has no time dimension in the ordinary sense. Light's "intrinsic" motion ("gauged", regulated, and its magnitude determined by "velocity c") is the primordial spatial entropy drive of free energy, and also the gauge of a "non-local" symmetry condition formally characterized by Einstein as light's zero "Interval" (the "Interval" of light = 0). Light's zero "Interval" (the "Interval" is an invariant measure of spacetime and causality) mathematically defines light's symmetric energy state of "non-locality".
Light is a 2-dimensional transverse wave whose "intrinsic" (entropic) motion sweeps out a third spatial dimension. Lacking both a time dimension and one spatial dimension (in its direction of propagation), light's position in 3-dimensional space or 4-dimensional spacetime cannot be specified. Since both time and distance are meaningless to light, and yet light has intrinsic motion, light has in effect an infinite amount of time to go nowhere. Hence in its own reference frame (moving freely in the vacuum of spacetime at velocity c), light must be considered to be everywhere simultaneously. From this results the "non-local" (and therefore a-temporal and a-causal) symmetric energy state of light. "Non-locality" is the primary symmetry condition of massless, free electromagnetic energy, and constitutes its chief distinction from massive, local, temporal, and causal bound electromagnetic energy (matter). Several other symmetries are associated with light's non-local energy state, all of which require conservation (in accordance with "Noether's Theorem" - see below).
Light's "zero Interval" means that light is everywhere throughout its conservation domain simultaneously - a symmetry condition with respect to the distribution of light's energy in spacetime ("symmetry" refers to a condition of balance, sameness, or equality). It is due to this symmetry condition that we can (in theory) circumnavigate the Universe within a human lifetime - in a rocket ship moving at nearly velocity c. At exactly c it takes no time at all (time does not exist - clocks stop - at velocity c; also, distance in the direction of motion shrinks to nothing).
The electromagnetic constant c is the universal "gauge" or regulator (in the sense of railroad track or wire gauges) for the "metric" of spacetime, the fixed relationship which establishes the equivalence of measurement within and between the dimensions: 300,000 km of linear spatial distance is metrically equivalent to 1 second of temporal duration. At c this equivalence is complete and time is suppressed to a locally implicit state (light has no time dimension). The suppression of the asymmetric time dimension (and time's asymmetric companions, mass, charge, and gravitation), and the inertial/entropic/energetic equilibration of the 3 spatial dimensions, is the principle symmetry-keeping function of c. To think of c as a velocity, even as a "non-ordinary" velocity, is to miss the point: the physical significance of c is that c gauges both light's non-local symmetric energy state and light's primordial spatial entropy drive. It is because of these "gauge" functions that c appears to us as an effectively "infinite" and invariant velocity. Another famous gauge function of c (also discovered by Einstein) fixes the energetic equivalence of free to bound electromagnetic energy: E = mcc. "c" also functions as the gauge or messenger of causality (via the "Interval"). These various gauge functions (among others) indicate the primacy of light in our Universe - and the fundamental significance of Einstein's scientific contributions through his Special Theory of Relativity.
The Metric of Spacetime
(row 1, cell 2)
The role of gravity at this stage is to provide sufficient negative energy to counterbalance the positive energy of the "Creation Event", such that the Cosmos is born from a state of zero net energy and charge (the latter due to the equal admixture of matter vs antimatter - row 1, cell 3).Imagine a Universe of pure light, before the creation of matter, in which the dimensional metric of spacetime is everywhere the same, as no gravitational fields are present to disturb its symmetry. The metric is a necessary condition of the spatial domain, as it is the regulatory structure and mechanism which performs the conservation function of the domain (via "inertial" forces), controlling and coordinating the rate of expansion and cooling of space both globally and locally, regardless of the changing size of the Universe. It is for this reason that a "non-local" metric gauge such as c is required - one whose regulatory influence can be everywhere simultaneously, irrespective of the physical extent (or rate of expansion) of its domain. Both space and its metric are created by the intrinsic motion of light. Without the metric every photon could have a unique velocity; it is the metric which imposes the universal constant c upon them all. While we conceive of the metric as produced by light, the metric's origin is in the inherent energy conservation parameters of light, including entropy (light's intrinsic motion) and symmetry (light's non-locality).Gravity is (implicitly) carried in the metric as time. When all forces and the spacetime metric are united with energy, light, matter and antimatter at the initial moment of the "Creation" (cell one), it is the temporal component of the metric that provides the counterbalancing negative gravitational energy. However, this is a precarious initial condition of balance (between matter and antimatter) that cannot remain static for long. But how does the universe escape the gravitational confinement of a black hole when it is being born? Although this is clearly part of the mystery surrounding quantum gravity, it may be that the lack of an external spacetime environment is the crucial difference allowing the escape of the "Big Bang". The gravitational metric/energy of the "Creation Event" has no way to replenish itself given the lack of an external spacetime, and so is overwhelmed by the matter-antimatter explosion and the drive of spatial entropy (light's "intrinsic" motion). It is also likely that much of the energy of the "Big Bang" is carried in the form of "sterile" (non-interacting) neutrinos, which would greatly facilitate the rapid expansion and cooling of the early cosmos. ("Sterile" neutrinos are probably leptoquark neutrinos, forming the major component of "dark matter".)
"Inflation" takes place, if at all, in this cell. "Inflation" may result from the extreme violence of the original explosion, the fireball simply ripping spacetime apart, expanding uncontrolled until it is cool enough to be harnessed and regulated by the usual spacetime metric of electromagnetism and gravity. (See: "Inflation and the 'Big Crunch'".)
The primordial entropy drive of light (free electromagnetic energy) is expressed through its intrinsic motion, expanding and cooling the Universe, hence reducing the Cosmos' capacity for work. But it is light's intrinsic motion which also creates the conservation domain of spacetime and maintains its metric symmetry, suppressing time, equilibrating the spatial dimensions, etc. Therefore light and space are related through the first and second laws of thermodynamics, while c functions to gauge both the primordial entropy drive and the non-local symmetric energy state of light. It is the function of entropy's primordial form to create a dimensional conservation domain in which energy can be transformed, used, but nevertheless conserved. Without entropy (the 2nd law of thermodynamics), the Universe could not spend its energy capital, since the 1st law of thermodynamics (energy conservation) would forbid any use of energy at all. The dimensions of spacetime are entropy domains, created by the intrinsic (entropic) dimensional motions of light (creating space), time (creating history), and gravitation (converting space to time and vice versa), as gauged by "c" (the intrinsic motion of light), "T" (the intrinsic motion of time), and "G" (the gravitational constant). (See: "A Description of Gravitation".)
The intrinsic motion of time is also primarily gauged
by c as the temporal duration (measured by a clock)
required by light to move a given distance (measured by
a meter stick). The gravitational constant G is the
entropy conversion gauge, fixing the volume of space
which must be annihilated and converted to time per
given mass (Gm). Gravitation converts the entropy drive
of free electromagnetic energy (the intrinsic motion of
light as gauged by "velocity c") to the entropy drive of
bound electromagnetic energy (the intrinsic motion of
time as gauged by "velocity T") and vice versa (as in
the conversion of bound to free energy in stars). (See:
"Spatial
vs Temporal Entropy".) Our universe contains a
mixture of free and bound forms of electromagnetic
energy, and the intrinsic motions of light and gravity
provide metric/entropic domains (space, time, historic
spacetime) to accommodate the conservation requirements
of both energy types.
Our physical Universe, including the conservation domain of spacetime, is wholly the product of a single form of energy - electromagnetic energy (the "monotheism" of physics). Light is the most primordial form of this energy, which we know because light has the greatest symmetry of any energy form, and provides the basic gauges, both metric and energetic, for either free or bound electromagnetic energy. Light is the only energy form which can produce its own conservation domain from its own nature (intrinsic motion c) - matter must produce its temporal, historic domain from preexisting space via the gravitational conversion of space to time. Finally, light is the form from which all other kinds of energy are created, and to which they all reduce and return (as in matter-antimatter annihilations). (See: "Entropy, Gravitation, and Thermodynamics".)
"Noether's Theorem" (Emmy Noether, 1918) states that in a multicomponent field (such as the electromagnetic field, or the metric field of spacetime), where one finds a symmetry, one will also find an associated conservation law, and vice versa. Noether's Theorem is saying that in the conversion of light to matter (for example), not only must the raw energy of light be conserved in the mass and momentum of particles, but the symmetry of light must also be conserved - not only the quantity but the quality of energy must be conserved.
Before symmetry-breaking we find Noether's
Theorem expressed through: 1) the inertial forces of
metric symmetry-keeping as gauged by "velocity c",
suppressing the asymmetric time dimension; 2) through
the electrical annihilation of particle-antiparticle
pairs, suppressing the asymmetric appearance of any
immobile bound (massive) energy form, whether matter or
antimatter. After symmetry-breaking (in the "Big
Bang"), we find additional expressions of Noether's
Theorem in: 1) the metric fields of gravitation and
time; 2) the conserved charges (and spin) of particles -
which all work together (as in our Sun) to return
asymmetric matter to its original form of symmetric
light. The gravitational process (of symmetry
conservation) drives to completion via supernovas,
quasars, and finally Hawking's "quantum radiance" of
black holes. (See: "Nodes
of the Gravitational Metric".)
I think of Noether's theorem as the "Truth and Beauty" theorem, in reference to Keat's great poetic intuition:
"... Beauty is truth, truth beauty, - that is allin which Beauty corresponds to Symmetry and Truth corresponds to Conservation.
Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know"
("Ode on a Grecian Urn": John Keats,1819)
Two common examples of Noether's Theorem enforced in Nature are charge/spin conservation among the particles, and gravitational and inertial forces in the spacetime metric. These are the more enlightening because the former (charge) is an example of symmetry conservation and debt payment deferred indefinitely through time, while the latter (inertia) is an example of raw energy conservation in which the debt must be paid immediately. Furthermore, in the case of inertial forces, we see the implication that gravitation will also fall under the conservation mantle of Noether's Theorem, via Einstein's "Equivalence Principle". This indication is borne out and verified by the discovery that gravitation (like the other forces) is indeed a symmetry debt of light, responding to, conserving, and finally restoring the non-local spatial distribution of light's energy, a symmetry broken by the conversion of light to the immobile and hence undistributed concentrations of mass energy (E = mcc) represented by atomic matter.
Noether's theorem tells us why the basic forces of nature are all spontaneously busy converting matter back to light: matter was created from light in the "Big Bang", but since light has greater symmetry than matter, it is to conserve light's symmetry that all the charges and forces of matter work to accomplish the return of bound energy to its original symmetric state. The charges of matter are the symmetry debts of light. These charges produce forces which act to return the system of matter to light (free energy). Our Sun is an archetypical example of symmetry conservation in nature: the radiance of our star is the evidence of a completed symmetry conservation circuit. (See: "Currents of Symmetry and Entropy".)
A program of unification is therefore clearly
suggested by Noether's Theorem: identify the (broken)
symmetries of light carried, represented, and conserved
by the charges of matter. The actions of the forces
produced by these charges should offer clues as to what
these original symmetries were. This will allow us to
refer all the charges and forces of matter to their
common origin as specific symmetries of light,
accomplishing our conceptual unification. Matter is but
an asymmetric form of light, as time is an asymmetric
form of space, and gravity is an asymmetric form of
spacetime/inertia. The charges and forces of matter act
to return bound energy to its symmetric, original state
of free energy, in obedience to Noether's Theorem. In
the pages which follow, we will follow out this simple
conceptual program of force unification, by identifying
the broken symmetries of light represented by the
conserved charges of matter - including gravity's
"location" charge. While this is a conceptual rather
than a quantitative unification, is is hoped that by
framing the argument firmly within the constraints of
the known conservation laws, a pathway to a more formal,
quantitative, mathematical unification will at least be
indicated. (See also: "The
'Tetrahedron Model' vs the 'Standard Model' of
Physics: A Comparison".) Finally, this will be a
unification in English rather than mathematics (the
author has neither mathematical training nor ability),
but this has the advantage that most people will be able
to understand it. (In fact, most of the mathematics
relevant to the theory has already been done - by
Einstein, Noether, Galois, Hawking, etc.)
Particles
(row 1, cell 3)
(See: "The
Particle Table")
Matter consists of two types of massive particles, the elementary particles with no internal parts, called leptons, and composite particles with internal parts (quarks) called hadrons. Together they comprise atomic matter, the electron a member of the lepton family, and the nuclear particles (protons and neutrons) examples of the hadron family. Hadrons containing a quark-antiquark pair are known as mesons, while those containing 3 quarks are called baryons; no other quark combinations are thought to exist in nature - at least commonly (see: Discover "The Year in Science" Jan. 2006 page 39).
Together, high-energy light and metric spacetime have the capacity to produce particles (as demonstrated by the Dirac-Heisenberg vacuum "zoo" of virtual particles), which are essentially a "packaging" of light's free energy. The mechanism by which the primordial transformation of free to bound electromagnetic energy occurs is still unknown, although actively investigated. We believe our Universe began as an incredibly hot, energy dense, and spatially tiny "singularity" (the standard "Big Bang" model - see Steven Weinberg's "The First Three Minutes"). One can readily appreciate that a simple "packaging" mechanism for compactly storing the wave energy of light - which by its very nature (its intrinsic motion) takes up a lot of space - would be useful in the spatially cramped conditions of the initial moments of the Big Bang. (See: "Table of the Higgs Cascade".)
In a purely pragmatic way the "packaging" concept accounts for the existence of particles and some of their salient features: the spectrum of identical elementary particles of various masses (the leptonic series), the heavier ones presumably more useful "packages" at earlier times and higher energy densities, and similarly, the spectrum of composite particles (baryons), which can store additional energy internally, as if they contained a set of compressible springs (the quarks). Finally, massive particles can store an unlimited quantity of energy as momentum (thanks to Einstein's relativistic mass increase with velocity), a feature of particular utility in the early Universe, helping to avoid the "still birth" of a cosmic "black hole". (The conversion from a spatial (free energy) to a temporal (bound energy) entropy drive, preserving the Universe's capacity for work by storing energy as immobile, non-expanding mass (E = mcc), is perhaps an even better "reason" (from the "anthropic perspective") for the initial conversion of light to matter.) Still another argument favoring the existence of mass is that the gravitational field of massive particles provides a form of negative energy which exactly balances the positive energy of the "Big Bang", allowing the Universe to be born as a quantum fluctuation of the "void" or "Multiverse", containing no net energy at all (as in Alan Guth's theory of "inflation").
I presume there is a fractal or "resonant" relationship between the metric of spacetime and the structure of particles - the dimensional structure of spacetime is carried into, reflected in, or otherwise directly influences, the structure of particles. Light exists as a 2-dimensional energetic vibration of the metric structure of spacetime. Usually this energetic vibration is simply transmitted by the metric field at velocity c, the "inertial" symmetry condition imposed upon light by its conserving metric. However, it is also possible for this vibrational energy to become "entangled" in the metric and tie itself into higher dimensional "knots", which cannot be transmitted at c because they are no longer 2-dimensional. The elusive "Higgs boson" is thought to play a central regulatory or "gauge" role in these entanglements, endowing the elementary particles with mass (see: "The Higgs Boson vs the Spacetime Metric"). Such metric "knots" comprise particle-antiparticle pairs, and their energy, structure, and information content is derived from the mixture of metric spacetime and light. The otherwise inexplicable existence of three energy families of both quarks and leptons is perhaps a consequence of the origin of particles as electromagnetic "knots" in the 3 spatial dimensions of the metric. The mathematical/geometric connection between free energy, the metric, and the structure of particles is currently being investigated (in 10 or 11 dimensions!) by "string" theory (see Brian Greene's "The Elegant Universe"), and by "Group Theory" (see Ian Stewart's book, referenced above). In this paper, however, I sketch much simpler ideas in the usual 4 dimensions. (The totality of historic spacetime may be conceived as 5 dimensional - or even 8 dimensional - see: "Juan Maldacena's 5-Dimensional Universe".) (Another idea regarding the "three family" structure of elementary particles is that it greatly increases the number of ways quarks can combine to form electrically neutral baryons or leptoquarks - a critical consideration for symmetry-breaking via the slow-acting weak force. The family series is therefore self-limiting when it is sufficiently diverse to produce symmetry breaking.) (In the "Higgs Cascade", I suggest that all the forces, including gravity and the spacetime metric, are involved in the initial creation of massive energy forms (particles) during the "Big Bang".)
It remains a mystery how the elementary leptons are related to the composite baryons, but it is plausible that this relationship is through an ancestral, heavy, leptonic particle (the "leptoquark"), which "fractured" under its great mass and the enormous pressure of the "Big Bang", and so could arrange its internal fractional charges in electrically neutral configurations - as in the neutron. This notion is based on the theory of "asymptotic freedom" (Politzer, Gross, Wilczek - 2004 Nobel Prize) - a symmetry principle which observes that as the quarks of a baryon are squeezed together, the strong force which binds them becomes weaker, affording the quarks more freedom of movement. If the quarks are squeezed together completely - as by the ambient pressure of the "Big Bang", or by the "X" Intermediate Vector Boson (IVB) of the weak force, or by the gravitational pressure of a black hole's singularity - the color charge of the gluon field sums to zero (see Row 4, "Gluons", below), leaving a particle indistinguishable from a heavy lepton, the hypothetical "leptoquark". Beginning with the heavy analog of a neutron, a "colorless" and electrically neutral leptoquark would result, and therefore be susceptible to a typical weak force decay via a leptoquark neutrino and the "X" IVB, hypothetical particles we examine in the following section. (See also: "The Origin of Matter and Information"; see also: "The Particle Table"; see also: "The Higgs Boson and the Weak Force IVBs".)
Symmetry Breaking
and the Weak Force
(row 1, cell 4)
Leptons as Alternative Charge Carriers
The leptonic elementary particles (charge-bearing particles with no internal parts or sub-units, exampled by electrons and neutrinos) function as alternative charge carriers for the hadrons (composite mass-bearing particles containing quarks). Without these alternative charge carriers (electrons carry electric charge, neutrinos carry "number" or "identity" charge), the massive hadrons would remain unmanifest, locked in symmetric particle-antiparticle pairs, forever annihilating and reforming. (Mesons also function as alternative charge carriers for the fractional charges of quarks, especially active in the transformations of baryons.)
In fact, we discover that in order to produce (during the "Big Bang") an asymmetric, "singlet" particle of matter from a symmetric particle-antiparticle hadron (leptoquark) pair, we require: 1) an electrically neutral, composite, primary mass-carrying field (quarks bearing partial charges, similar to a neutron); 2) a secondary field of alternative charge carriers (electrons, neutrinos, and mesons); 3) interactions between the hadron and lepton field must be brokered by a third quantized mediating field, the Higgs boson and the Intermediate Vector Bosons (IVBs) of the weak force, the W, Z, and X particles; 4) the IVB field must furthermore be asymmetric in its interaction with the primary field, such that its reactions with particles proceed at a different rate than its reactions with antiparticles. IVBs and the scalar Higgs function to regulate and standardize the reaction pathway and products, such that all elementary particles (of a given species) are exactly alike whether created today or in the "Big Bang"; 5) a final requirement is that there must exist some fundamental basis of similarity between all three fields if they are to interact at all - they must be able to recognize and mesh with each other at the quantum level of charge. For example, the electrical charge of the proton must be exactly equal in magnitude to that of the positron or electron (hence the necessary supposition of their common origin in the leptoquark). (See: "The Higgs Boson and the Weak Force IVBs".)
Obviously, the relationship between the hadrons and leptons must be intimate, and almost certainly they are related through ancestry, that is, one is derived from the other, both are derived from the metric, both are decay products of the leptoquark, etc. A complex arrangement, but nothing less will suffice to break the initial symmetry of free energy and the particle-antiparticle pairs it so abundantly produces. Matter is only as complex as it must be to break symmetry and still conserve energy and charge. Free energy is flirting with the danger of manifestation (in the form of "real", temporal particles) in the ready creation of such virtual particle-antiparticle pairs, and in the end it pays the price. (See: "The 'W' IVB and the Weak Force Mechanism").
IVBs - Quantum Process and Particle Transformation
The field vectors or force carriers of the weak force are known as Intermediate Vector Bosons, or IVBs. The IVBs include the W+, W-, and Z (neutral) particles. As a group, they are the most unusual particles known and the most difficult to understand (I also include in this group the hypothetical super-heavy "X" particle thought to be responsible for producing leptoquark and proton decay.) The charge carried or mediated by the IVBs is the "number" or "identity" charge of the weak force. The weak force only creates or transforms "singlets", unpaired elementary particles, which must be invariant in all their attributes (mass, charge, spin, etc.), no matter where or when they are created. It is this heavy conservation constraint upon its operation and products that requires the massive and exotic mechanism of the weak force. (See also: "The Higgs Boson and the Weak Force IVBs".)
The weak force is the asymmetric and symmetry-breaking
physical mechanism that produces elementary massive
particles from light (more specifically, from light's
particle-antiparticle form), and governs the creation,
destruction, and transformation of single
elementary particles, both quarks and leptons. Only 3
massive leptonic elementary particles are known, the
electron, muon, and tau, identical in all their
properties other than mass and identity
("number"/"flavor") charge. This is the leptonic
particle family, series, or spectrum. It is a quantized
mass series, each member separated from the others by a
large, discreet, and exact mass difference. (I suspect
the leptoquark is the 4th and heaviest member of this
series, representing the primordial common ancestor of
the baryons and leptons.) It is the role of the IVBs to
mediate or broker the transformation, creation, and
destruction of single elementary leptons, and
transformations of quark "flavors" in certain
situations, notably in the decays of baryons. The "Z"
governs electrically neutral weak force interactions in
which neutrinos simply scatter ("bounce", exchanging
momentum) or swap identities with other heavy leptons.
The super-heavy "X" IVB is hypothesized to govern weak
force proton and leptoquark decay. The actual weak force
transformation mechanism is discussed below. (See also:
""The
Weak Force: Identity or Number Charge"). (See
also: "The
Particle Table".)
What is most remarkable about the IVBs is that they seem to be "metric" particles providing bridges between real particles and their counterparts in the "virtual particle sea" of the vacuum. The IVBs are not particles like the leptons and baryons which form stable matter; they are particles of interaction, present only when mediating a reaction, "virtual" particles usually known only by their effects, existing within the "Heisenberg Interval" for virtual reality, but real enough and producible as distinct, massive entities if the ambient energy density is sufficient.
The "W" IVB particle (which is nowadays readily produced in accelerators) is approximately 80 times heavier than the proton, which explains the relative "weakness" of the weak force - there is a huge energy barrier to surmount before weak interactions can occur. However, this also raises the obvious question of what this massive particle is composed of - certainly not ordinary matter, the stuff of baryons and leptons. My guess is that the IVBs generally are nothing other than a piece of very compact spacetime metric, similar to the dense metric of the early moments of the Big Bang. The huge mass energy of the particle is the binding energy required to compress the metric, perhaps fold it, and secure and quantize it in the particular configuration that characterizes the W, Z, or X IVB. Hence these particles are perhaps similar to the compacted, topological, multidimensional particles of "string" theory. The hypothetical "Higgs" boson may also be a "metric" particle. (See details of the weak force transformation mechanism in row 3, cell 3.) (See also: "The Higgs Boson and the Weak Force IVBs for a further discussion of the weak force in its full energy spectrum.)
The IVBs are an especially complex example of nature's penchant for quantization, and like other quantum processes, are responsible for a good deal of head-scratching. I can think of two reasons why the process of particle transformation should be quantized: 1) quantized units are indefinitely reproducible without loss of information or precision (due to entropy, for example - nature's "digital" information coding); 2) to ensure the charge invariance of the "hidden" or implicit lepton number charge (see below) - or indeed, any charge. (See: "Global-Local Gauge Symmetries of the Weak Force".)
In the initial phase of particle creation, particle-antiparticle pairs, presumably of all types, are created but annihilate each other instantly, recreating the light energy from which they are made. So long as these pairs are created and annihilated in equal numbers, the symmetry of the light Universe is maintained. But there is an inherent asymmetry in the way the weak force interacts with matter vs antimatter, with the consequence that even though particle pairs are created symmetrically (via the electromagnetic and strong forces), they do not decay symmetrically (via the weak force). Most probably these asymmetric decays occur in electrically neutral leptoquarks, heavy analogs of the neutron. An excess of matter is produced in this decay process, breaking the symmetry of the particle-antiparticle pairs and the light Universe, creating the matter comprising the Cosmos we experience today. It is the consequence of this broken symmetry of light, manifesting as massive matter-only particles, their quantized charges, including time and gravitation, that we will trace in the remaining rows of our 4x4 fractal model of the unified field theory.
With symmetry-breaking and the creation of matter from light during the "Big Bang", we pass from the initial global and non-local symmetry of light, space, and absolute motion, as "gauged" (regulated) by the universal electromagnetic constant "c", to the local asymmetry of matter, charge, time, gravity, and relative motion, with a spatial metric modified ("warped", "curved") by the universal gravitational constant, "G". A basic challenge posed to the forces of nature is to conserve energy and symmetry simultaneously in both free and bound forms of electromagnetic energy - in space as well as in historic spacetime.
Mass or Bound Energy
(row 2, cell 1)
Einstein's most famous formula, E = mcc, expresses the notion that the energy stored in mass is enormous and somehow related to light through the electromagnetic gauge constant c. DeBroglie noted that the Einstein-Planck formula for the energy of light: E = hv (where v = the frequency of light, and h = Planck's constant) contained the same E; putting the two together, DeBroglie wrote hv = mcc, expressing the energetic equivalence between free energy and its bound form, and suggesting their inter-convertibility. This equation implies that all the energy of light is conserved in massive form in such a transformation.
We might think with some justification that energy conservation is satisfied by DeBroglie's equation and nothing more need be said. But this is just "raw" or total energy conservation, conservation of quantity, not quality. The conservation of the quality, or symmetry, of free energy has not been addressed by this formula, nor has the conservation of light's entropy. No massive particle can be created from free energy without engendering a symmetry (and entropy) debt and charge of some sort. If the free energy is simply absorbed by an existing massive system (for example, the absorption of a photon by the electron shell of an atom) without the creation of a new charged particle, then at least a gravitational (= entropy) charge will be recorded.
Whenever we encounter the "intrinsic" dimensional motions of "velocity c" (light), "velocity T" (time), or "velocity G" (gravity), we are dealing with the entropy drives of free and bound energy in their primordial or most fundamental forms. At its most basic level, the gravitational charge represents the transferal, conversion, and conservation of the spatial entropy drive of free energy (light) to the temporal entropy drive of bound energy (matter). In the case of gravity, a symmetry debt is always combined with the entropy drive/debt. Free energy cannot be transferred to bound energy (or vice versa) without also transferring, converting, or conserving the primordial entropy drive of that energy; in massive particles, the intrinsic motion of time is the primordial entropy drive of the bound-energy system. Time is created by the gravitational (or quantum mechanical) conversion of space and the drive of spatial entropy (light's intrinsic motion) to time and the drive of historical entropy (time's intrinsic motion) (see: "Entropy, Gravitation, and Thermodynamics"; and see also: "The Conversion of Space to Time"). Hence we must include time, the primordial entropy drive of bound energy, along with gravitation in Row 2, keeping in mind, however, that gravitation has in addition to its entropy conservation role a symmetry conservation role which also links it to the charges and discussion of Row Three.
The basic function of mass and momentum is apparently the compaction ("packaging") and storage of free energy, and the conversion of light to a bound energy form with a less destructive entropic drive, as touched upon in the discussion of Row One. We also took note of the role of gravitation as a supplier of negative energy in the creation of matter during the "Big Bang". Mass is bound electromagnetic energy, and it is asymmetric in many ways by comparison to the free electromagnetic energy (light) from which it is derived. For this reason mass carries various charges, which are symmetry debts whose origins we have traced to the conservation of light's perfect symmetry (see Row 3). Beyond the absence of anti-matter, the most fundamental symmetry debt of mass is dimensional - mass is 4-dimensional, with no (net) intrinsic spatial motion, but with a one-way time dimension which moves instead. Because time exists (among other reasons) to establish and control the causal relations of matter, the time dimension itself is necessarily one-way, hence asymmetric. Free energy, from which mass is formed, is a 2-dimensional transverse wave, whose intrinsic motion sweeps out a third spatial (entropic) dimension. Four-dimensional massive matter or bound energy is local, temporal, and causal; two-dimensional massless light or free energy is non-local, a-temporal, and a-causal.
Time and Entropy
Time
(row 2, cell 2)
(See: "Spatial
vs Temporal Entropy")
One-way time is a dimensional asymmetry, or dimensional symmetry debt carried by mass; time is also the primordial entropic drive and expression of entropy in matter: the intrinsic motion of time is the entropy drive of bound energy and history. Gravitation creates the time dimension of matter by annihilating space and extracting a metrically equivalent temporal residue. The gravitational field of bound energy is a remnant of the entropy drive or intrinsic motion of the free energy which originally created matter. Essentially, gravitation converts the intrinsic motion of free energy (as gauged by "velocity c") into its entropic analog and metric equivalent, the intrinsic motion of matter's time dimension (as gauged by "velocity T"). (See: "The Conversion of Space to Time".)
The intrinsic motion of light creates space and the intrinsic motion of gravity creates time. Time marches on to create history, the temporal analog of space. The intrinsic motion of light is the spatial entropy drive of free energy, and the intrinsic motion of time is the historical entropy drive of bound energy. Welded together by gravitation, the intrinsic motions of time and light create historic spacetime, the compound conservation domain of free and bound electromagnetic energy. Space and the drive of spatial entropy (S) (light's intrinsic motion), are gravitationally transformed into time and the drive of historical entropy (T) (time's intrinsic motion), a transformation which can be symbolically represented in a quasi-mathematical "concept equation" as:
-Gm(S) = (T)m
-Gm(S) - (T)m = 0
(Because I assume the general validity of Einstein's gravitational equations (other than the case of light in free space), it follows that I assume Einstein's formulation of the gravitational "warpage" of spacetime can be interpreted as the conversion of space to time. The interconversion of space with time is well known in other contexts involving moving or gravitational reference frames (Einstein's invariant "Interval", "Lorentz Invariance") in both Special and General Relativity. Hence the actual mathematics behind my grossly simplified "concept equation" has evidently already been done.) (See also the paper "The "Higgs" Boson vs the Spacetime Metric".)
(See: "A Description of Gravitation".)
Again excepting the lack of anti-matter, bound energy's most obvious asymmetry (matter's 4-dimensional energy state), is due to matter's lack of intrinsic spatial motion "c", meaning bound energy is "local" and associated with one-way temporal causality chains. The 4-dimensional energy state of matter gives bound energy a different inertial status than free energy, because light is 2-dimensional. The "Interval" of free energy = 0 and light produces no gravitational field; in contrast, bound energy has a real, positive Interval (because of its time dimension), and a gravitational field (also because of its time dimension). Both time and gravity are asymmetric dimensional attributes. I associate the gravitational charge ("location") with the primordial entropy drive of bound energy (the intrinsic motion of time), and with the broken symmetry of the universally equitable distribution of light's energy throughout space (light's symmetric "non-local" energy state or "zero Interval") - a symmetry obviously broken when massless light is converted to massive matter. Both local time and local gravity vary in intensity with the quantity and density of matter, demonstrating their association with the local character of bound energy, and with the significant dimensional parameters of the asymmetric spacetime distribution of matter's immobile energy content, especially matter's location, quantity, and density.
When free energy is converted to bound energy, entropy-energy driving the spatial expansion of the Universe is converted to entropy-energy driving the historical expansion of the Universe; in the process, space is gravitationally annihilated, consequently decelerating the spatial expansion. (See: "A Spacetime Map of the Universe".)
The gravitational conversion of space to time is
physically demonstrated by black holes. The
Bekenstein-Hawking theory mathematically relates the
surface area of a black hole's "event horizon" to its
entropy content (see: Scientific American August
2003). (See also: "The
Half-Life of Proton Decay and the 'Heat Death' of the
Cosmos".) The "event horizon" of a black hole is a
temporal surface where clocks stop (because the duration
of a second becomes infinitely long). The black hole
itself is ruled by a gravitational/temporal metric which
completely displaces the electromagnetic spatial metric
(hence leaving a "black hole" in space).
Time also plays a crucial part in the symmetry-conservation role of gravitation (as we will see in Row 3 when we consider the "location" charge of gravity), providing the historical dimensional parameter within which charge conservation has durable meaning and consequential causality relations ("Karma"). (See: "The Double Conservation Role of Gravity".)
Charge Invariance
(See: "Global
vs Local Gauge Symmetry and the 'Tetrahedron Model'")
The invariance of charge in the service of symmetry conservation is another rationale for the tangential relationship between matter and matter's entropic conservation domain, historic spacetime. Matter, and matter's associated charges, exist only in the present moment of time, and do not participate in the entropic expansion (either spatial or temporal) of historic spacetime. The charges of matter, as well as the energy content of matter, are therefore protected from entropic enervation or dilution by the "march of time" or the expansion of space. Atoms simply do not age (in their "ground" state), and charge magnitudes are invariant through time. The tangential contact between matter and historic spacetime is also the reason for the weakness of gravity: gravity need supply matter with only enough temporal entropy to maintain or "service" the tiny tangential point of contact. At this point of contact, gravity is actually the same strength as the electromagnetic force - as the black hole demonstrates. This notion accords well with the observation of P. A. M. Dirac that the ratio of the strength of the gravitational force to the electromagnetic force is the same as the ratio of the radius of an electron to the radius of the Cosmos - the electron in this comparison representing the physical size of the "tangential" point of contact between matter and historic spacetime.
Of course, Special Relativity also tells us that matter cannot move with the metric equivalent of "velocity c", and that therefore the time dimension must move instead, while matter remains stationary and rides the "time train". There are multiple reasons for matter's isolation in the "universal present moment", illustrating the seamless interweaving of all natural law, and raising again Einstein's question: did God have any latitude in the construction of the Universe? From the perspective of the "Anthropic Principle" (natural law must allow human life), the answer is apparently "no".
Entropy
(See: "Spatial
vs Temporal Entropy")
Entropy exists in several forms in nature, always with the same purpose, to prevent violations of energy conservation. Unless the context indicates otherwise, when I refer to "entropy" in these papers (especially in such phrases as "space and spatial entropy" or "time and historical entropy"), I am referring to entropy in its most primordial or pure form, as the intrinsic motion of light "gauged" or regulated by "velocity c" (in the case of "spatial entropy"), or as the intrinsic motion of time "gauged" or regulated by "velocity T" (in the case of historical or "temporal entropy"). Of course, time is also ultimately "gauged" or regulated by "velocity c", since time is defined as the duration (measured by a clock) required by light to travel a given distance (measured by a meter stick).
The Dimensions
(See: "The
Time Train".)
The dimensions of spacetime are conservation/entropy domains, created by the entropic, "intrinsic" motions of free and bound electromagnetic energy (the intrinsic motion of light and the intrinsic motion of matter's time dimension). These domains function as arenas of action, where energy in all its forms can be simultaneously used, transformed, but nevertheless conserved. This is the major connection between the 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics.
Bound energy (matter) requires a time dimension to establish and maintain causality, to provide an entropy drive, and to balance its energy accounts, because the energy contained in mass varies with its relative velocity, and relative velocity involves time. Light does not require a similar accommodation because light's absolute velocity is non-relative and invariant; light's energy varies not with velocity but with frequency. Time is one-way because raw energy conservation forces the continual updating of matter's energy accounts, from one instant to the next, protecting causality, the temporal sequence of cause and effect. The "local" character of matter requires a causal temporal linkage, whereas the "non-local" character of light does not. Causality itself requires the one-way character of time; energy conservation requires the presence and protection of causality and its associated temporal entropy drive in every system of bound energy.
The intrinsic motion of time ("velocity T") is the primordial entropy drive of bound energy, causing the aging and decay of matter and information, and creating and expanding history, the conservation domain of information and matter's "causal matrix". History is the temporal analog of space: "intrinsic motion T" and "intrinsic motion c" are metric equivalents. The entropy drives T and c both produce analogous dimensional conservation domains for their energy types, history for information (matter's "causal matrix"), space for light. Space connects light; time and causal history connect matter; gravity connects all. It is the non-local symmetry of light that requires a spatial entropic domain, whereas it is the local asymmetry of matter that requires an historic entropic domain. Gravitation (entropy drive "G") converts space into time and matter into light (as in the stars), producing the equilibrated joint dimensional conservation domain of historic spacetime, where both free and bound forms of electromagnetic energy can interact and find their conservation needs satisfied.
Entropy is a necessary corollary of energy conservation, actually responsible for the creation of our dimensional experience of spacetime through the intrinsic (entropic) motions of light, time, and gravitation (the entropy drives or "gauges" c, T, G). (See: "The Tetrahedron Model")
The Interval
(See: Section
IX: Symmetry: Noether`s Theorem and Einstein's
"Interval")
The "Interval" is Einstein's mathematical formulation of a quantity of spacetime that is invariant for all observers regardless of their motion, uniform or accelerated. It is the analog of the Pythagorean theorem in 4 dimensions. The "Interval" of light is zero, which means light is "non-local". This is the fundamental symmetry condition of light. Light could not create its spacetime conservation domain, perform its primordial entropy function, nor "gauge" its metric without the spatio-temporal symmetry of "non-locality". But the Interval of mass, or bound energy, is always some positive quantity greater than zero, and this is because the time dimension is necessarily explicit for immobile, local mass, for reasons of entropy, causality, and energy conservation we have considered above. Conversely, because light is missing both the X and the T dimensional parameters, light's position in 4 dimensional spacetime cannot be specified. The basic function of Einstein's "Interval" is to rescue causality in material systems from the shifting perspectives of Einstein's reference frames in relative motion.
This all makes sense when we think about space filled
only with light - in such a domain there is no purely
spatial Interval because there is nothing to distinguish
one place or point from another - all is uniform and
indistinguishable spatial, metric, and energetic
symmetry. But enter mass with its inevitable companions:
time, charge, and gravitation (the asymmetric "gang of
four"), and immediately we can distinguish a point or
place - here is the particle - more significantly, here
is the gravitational field pointing to the particle's
location from every other place in space (the influence
of the field is universal in extent). The gravitational
field organizes the formerly featureless space around
the particle's center of mass. But one more thing is
needed to pin down this location as absolutely unique:
because the Universe is always moving, expanding due to
the spatial entropy drive of light's intrinsic motion,
the time dimension is also required to specify which of
an endless succession of moving locations (or evolving,
cooling energy states) will dimensionally indicate the
"center of mass" of any form of bound energy.
Does Light Produce a
Gravitational Field?
(See: "Dark
Energy: Does Light Produce a Gravitational Field?".)
The positive "Interval" of mass represents a dimensional asymmetry because it is unique, distinguishable, and invariant for all observers. Light has no associated gravitational field because it has no Interval and hence no "location". Being non-local, light cannot provide a center for a gravitational field, and an uncentered gravitational field constitutes a violation of energy conservation (because of producing "net" motion and hence energy). Consequently, freely moving light cannot and does not produce a gravitational field. Light's zero Interval is precisely the symmetry condition necessary to prevent the formation of an explicit time dimension and its associated gravitational field. Light could hardly function as the metric gauge of spacetime if it were itself plagued by a metric-warping "location" charge and gravitational field. Finally, light has no time dimension nor the gravitational field which could produce one.
This is the basic conservation reason why the intrinsic motion of light - whatever its actual numerical value - must be the "velocity of non-locality", the symmetry gauge and entropy drive of free energy, the gauge of the metrical equivalence between time and space, effectively an infinite velocity within its spatial domain. Otherwise light would have a "location charge", a time dimension, and a gravitational field, and spacetime would immediately collapse into a black hole. (If light produced a gravitational field, the Universe would have been "still born" as a black hole; instead of a "Big Bang" there would have been a "Big Crunch". The fact that (much of) the scientific "establishment" believes that free light produces a gravitational field continues to be a major conceptual roadblock in their ongoing effort to unify gravitation with the other forces. This is a major, crucial, and (at least in principle) testable point of difference between the unification scenarios of the "Tetrahedron Model" and "establishment" physics.)
In fact, the recently announced "acceleration" of the cosmic expansion of spacetime (see, for example, Sky and Telescope March, 2005, pages 32-39) provides observational evidence favoring my view that light lacks a gravitational field. As mass is converted to light in stars and quasars, by Hawking's "quantum radiance", and by particle and proton decay (and perhaps by analogous conservation processes in "dark matter"), the total gravitational field of the Cosmos is reduced, resulting, over cosmological time, in the observed "acceleration". "Dark energy" is therefore simply the attrition of the primordial gravitational field of the universe (and its replacement by expansive light).
Symmetries of Light Conserved in Matter
In terms of conservation: in obedience to Noether's theorem, bound energy stores the symmetry of light as the conserved charges (and spin) of matter; in obedience to the first law of thermodynamics, bound energy stores the raw energy of light as the mass and momentum of matter; in obedience to the second law of thermodynamics, bound energy stores the spatial entropy drive of light as the gravitational field and temporal entropy drive of matter. Gravitation and time induce each other endlessly. Thus entropy produces the dimensional conservation domains of free energy (space - through the intrinsic motion of light), and of information and matter's "causal matrix" (historic spacetime - through the intrinsic motion of time and gravitation). This is the iron linkage between the first and second laws of thermodynamics. Noether's theorem is drawn into this "trinity" of natural law because velocity c is both the entropy drive and the symmetry gauge of free energy, and as a conservation consequence, gravitation with its "location" charge is a symmetry as well as an entropy debt of light. (See: "The Double Conservation Role of Gravitation"). The gravitational entropy debt causes the creation of time from space, the deceleration of cosmic spatial expansion and the creation of historic spacetime; the gravitational symmetry debt actually reverses this process, through the radiation of stars, galaxies, black holes (Hawking's "quantum radiance") and quasars, resulting in the "acceleration" of the cosmic spatial expansion as such astrophysical processes spontaneously convert bound energy and its neg-entropic gravitational/temporal field to light and light's electromagnetic pos-entropic spatial field.
The Mechanism of
Gravitation
time is the active principle of gravity's "location"
charge
(See: "The
Conversion of Space to Time".)
Time and space are both implicit in the description of the motion of an electromagnetic wave: "frequency" (time) multiplied by "wavelength" (space) = c, the velocity of light. In the quantum-mechanical creation of a time "charge", when an electromagnetic wave collapses or becomes "knotted", it switches from the spatial or "wavelength" character of a moving wave to the temporal or "frequency" character of a particle or stationary wave - like a coin flipping from heads to tails. It is reasonable to call this temporal expression a "charge" because time is asymmetric: being one-way, time has the asymmetric or informational character of any other isolated charge of matter. Time differs from the other charges in that it is an "entropic charge" - a charge with intrinsic dimensional motion. The asymmetric time charge produces a specific "location" in the otherwise symmetric field of space - giving the massive particle it is associated with a positive "Interval", whereas the light from which the particle was derived had a "zero" Interval. (See: "Gravity Diagram No. 2".)
This is the formal character of gravity's "location" charge - the positive "Interval" of bound energy breaks the non-local spatial symmetry of the free energy from which it was created. This non-local symmetry state had produced the equitable distribution of light's energy throughout space (everywhere simultaneously), a symmetry broken by the concentrated lump of immobile energy represented by bound energy's undistributed "rest mass". It is the distributional asymmetry of matter's energy content which is the origin of gravity's symmetry debt and "location" charge. Demonstrating this point, the "location" or gravitational charge records the spacetime position, quantity, and density of the asymmetric energy distribution represented by any form of bound energy. Nor is gravity a passive signal: gravity will direct you to the center of this asymmetry by carrying you there bodily ("rubbing your nose" in it). Finally, gravity will repay the symmetry debt by converting bound to free energy in stars and quasars (partially), and via Hawking's "quantum radiance" of black holes (completely).
As magnetism is the invisible, "intrinsic", long-range, "electro-motive" (electrically active) force of the loadstone, so gravity is the invisible, "intrinsic", long-range, "inertio-motive" (dimensionally active) force of the ordinary rock. In the case of magnetism, we trace the force back to the moving (and aligned) electric charges of the atoms in the loadstone; in the case of gravity, we trace the force back to the moving (and one-way) temporal charges of bound energy in the rock. A moving electric charge creates a magnetic field; a moving temporal charge creates a gravitational field. In both cases the field is produced at right angles to the current. The relation is reciprocal as well: moving magnetic and spatial fields (gravity) create electric and temporal currents (time). This is the intuitive analogy between electromagnetism and gravitation which so intrigued Einstein. Finally, gravitation and time induce each other endlessly, as do the electric and magnetic components of light.
Extending the analogy, both time and magnetism are examples of "local gauge symmetry currents" associated with material systems in relative motion, which protect the invariance of "global" symmetries - velocity c, causality, and the Interval in the case of time ("Lorentz Invariance"), and electric charge in the case of magnetism.
The "graviton" or field vector of the gravitational charge is a quantum unit of temporal entropy, a quantum unit of time, the transformed, "flipped", or inverted spatial entropy drive or intrinsic motion of the photon (implicit vs explicit time = photon vs graviton). Time is the active principle of gravity's "location" charge; time is the implicit entropy drive of free energy and the explicit entropy drive of bound energy; time is the connecting link between Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity.
Quantum Mechanics
and Gravitation
(See: "The
Double Conservation Role of Gravitation")
Gravitation is both a symmetry debt and an entropy debt, unique among the charges and their forces. Gravity's double conservation role is due to the double gauge role of c, which gauges both the entropy drive and the non-local symmetric energy state of free energy. Gravity cannot conserve either gauge function of c without conserving both. This double nature is reflected in two different mechanisms, both of which convert space to time, one at the quantum level of charge - the entropy debt, and one at the macroscopic level of gravitational force - the symmetry debt. The two mechanisms are distinct but both are part of the gravitational conversion of space to time, connecting the quantum-mechanical aspect of gravitational charge (particle-charge-time-entropy) to the macroscopic aspect of gravitational flow (mass-location-space-symmetry). For a more extensive discussion of the mechanics of gravitation and the relationship between quantum mechanics and gravitation, see: "Entropy, Gravitation, and Thermodynamics"; and: "A Description of Gravitation".
Global vs Local Gauge
Symmetry and the Gravitational Metric: Energy
Conservation
(See: "Global
vs Local Gauge Symmetry in Gravity".)
The gravitational contribution to our 4x4 matrix or fractal table at this position (row 2, cell 2) is the time dimension of bound energy. In the "global vs local gauge symmetry" interpretation of the cosmic order, the global symmetry state of reference in the case of gravity is the spatial symmetry state established by the electromagnetic constant "c" in row 1, cell 2, immediately above "time" in the 4x4 matrix representation. Time is the compensating component of the local gauge symmetry "current" or field vector (the graviton of spacetime), derived from the global state by the gravitational annihilation of space and the extraction of a metrically equivalent temporal residue. The local state is derived from, imposed upon, and "warps" the global state, being an asymmetric derivative which introduces a one-way temporal and gravitational component into the local metric, both having a privileged or defined directionality or vector ("forward" in time and "downward" in space: radially inward toward the center of mass).
The primary function of a dimensional metric is always the conservation of energy. In the local, temporal metric established by gravitation (as gauged by the universal constant "G"), time is the new dimensional parameter which is required to conserve the energy accounts of matter, for at least four reasons: 1) the energy content of matter varies with matter's relative motion (whereas in the global, spatial metric, light's energy varies with frequency, not light's "absolute" motion); 2) time provides the primordial entropy drive of matter (unlike light, matter has no (net) intrinsic spatial motion to supply its entropy drive); 3) time orders the causality linkages of matter in the information domain of historic spacetime (whereas light is a-causal, being both non-local and a-temporal); 4) time provides the "local gauge symmetry current" which is necessary to compensate for the relative motion of material reference frames, protecting the invariance of the "Interval", causality, and velocity c (the "Lorentz Invariance" of Special and General Relativity).
Through the dimensional agency of time, energy conservation is accomplished in the local gravitational metric of relative motion and matter gauged by G, no less than in the global spatial metric of absolute motion and light gauged by c. The spherical symmetry of a gravitational field is crucial to its energy conservation role, not only to extract time from space, but to avoid imparting a (net) spatial motion to the central (gravitating) mass. All gravitational fields of whatever strength are exactly symmetric (in their net effect), and vanish, self-annihilate, or cancel at the center of the field, whether individually in an atom or collectively in a planet.
Historic Spacetime
(See: ""A
Spacetime Map of the Universe")
The temporal entropy drive of matter is provided at the expense of the spatial entropy drive of light. The expansion of history is funded by the expansion of space, resulting in the gravitational deceleration of the spatial expansion of the Cosmos. The energy for matter's expanding historical domain comes (via gravity) from the expansive energy of light's spatial domain. This conservation/symmetry circuit is completed by the gravitational conversion of bound to free energy in stars and related astrophysical processes, returning light to its spatial domain, reducing the total gravitational field of the Cosmos, and consequently allowing the Universe to "accelerate" toward a gravity-free maximum rate of expansion.
Light is linked by space, matter is linked by time, causality, and history. Gravity links everything. Historic spacetime is the conservation domain of matter's causal information "matrix" or network, the "karmic" field of consequences, cause and effect, and historical connectivity. Today is the causal effect of yesterday, and yesterday must remain real in historic spacetime if the reality of our present moment is to be upheld. The material Universe is bound together by gravitation, historic spacetime, and temporal causality ("karma").
Fermions: Quarks and
Leptons
(massive particles, Row 2, cells 3 and 4)
(See: "The
Short-Range or Particle Forces")
Mass assumes quantized, specific, particulate form as the strong force quarks and hadrons, and the weak force leptons. Hadrons are defined as particles containing quarks; hence all hadrons carry "color" charge, the source of the (quark-level) strong force. Leptons contain no quarks and hence carry no color charge. Leptons carry lepton "number", "flavor", or "identity" charge, the symmetry-debt source of the weak force. The leptons are true elementary particles (having no internal parts) whereas the quarks are sub-elementary (quarks are the internal parts of hadrons). Electrons are familiar examples of the heavy members of the lepton family (electron, muon, tau, and (?) leptoquark); neutrinos are (nearly) massless members of the lepton family (there is a separate and distinct neutrino for each massive lepton). Protons and neutrons are familiar examples of the "hadron" family; they are further distinguished as members of the "baryon" class of hadrons, which are composed of 3 quarks. The only other hadrons are the mesons, which are composed of quark-antiquark pairs (see: "The Particle Table"). In general, the baryons function as mass carriers, and the leptons and mesons function as alternative charge carriers (as for example in the familiar electron-proton combination of atomic matter). Alternative charge carriers perform the crucial function of balancing charges of matter which otherwise would have to be balanced by antiparticles - which of course would cause annihilation reactions.
3 Elementary Families
Each of 4 Particles
(See: "The
Fractal Organization of Nature")
The quarks and the leptons each occur in three "families" of differing energy levels; the quark and lepton families appear to be paired in these 3 families as follows (a precisely corresponding set of antiparticles exists but is not shown). The pairing of the quark and lepton "families" is facultative, not obligatory:
1) down, up (d, u) quarks and the electron and
electron neutrino (e, ve);
2) strange, charm (s, c) quarks and the muon and muon
neutrino (u, vu);
3) bottom, top (b, t) quarks and the tau and tau
neutrino (t, vt).
There is no generally accepted explanation why there should be 3 energy levels of particles, why they occur in apparently correlated pairs, or how the quarks and leptons are related. Ordinary matter (including stars) is composed of the "1st family" only. It seems likely that the quarks and leptons are both derived from a high energy, primordial "ancestor" particle, the "leptoquark"; it also seems likely that the 3 energy families of particles are in some sense reflecting their origin in the 3-dimensional metric structure of space. (See: "The Leptoquark Diagram"; and also: "The Hourglass Diagram".) (It has also been suggested that the "3 family" structure of the elementary particle spectrum is necessary for the weak force asymmetry which produced isolated particles of matter in the "Big Bang". With three quark families the possible quark combinations producing electrically neutral baryons (hyperons) is greatly increased - a critical factor for the asymmetric weak force creation of matter via leptoquark decay.)
Quarks
(row 2, cell 3)
(See: "Synopsis
of the Unification Theory: The System of Matter"
In contrast to the "long-range" electrical and gravitational forces, which have an infinite range through spacetime, the strong force is a "short-range" force, an internal characteristic of nuclear matter. Quarks occur in only two kinds of particles: "baryons" composed of 3 quarks, and "mesons" composed of quark-antiquark pairs. Baryons are familiar to us as neutrons and protons, but there are many other 3 quark combinations possible using members of the heavier quark families ("hyperons"). In addition, every quark combination seems to have many possible energetic expressions, or "resonances", just as electron orbits have many "excited" states. Typically, all excited nuclear states are exceedingly short-lived. Six known quarks are paired in three "energy families"; the paired quarks are named "up, down"; "charm, strange"; and "top, bottom". Ordinary matter consists only of the up, down quark pair in their unexcited or "ground" state (protons and neutrons).
At a higher level of strong force structural order and cohesion, a meson exchange field binds nucleons (protons and neutrons) into compound atomic nuclei. This higher-order or nucleon-level expression of the strong force (inter-baryonic rather than intra-baryonic) is essentially an "oscillation" of the nucleons between their possible neutron or proton identities (sometimes known as "isospin" or "isotropic spin" symmetry). "Isospin" symmetry amounts to an oscillation between quark up and down "flavors", whereas the lower order or gluon-level strong force amounts to an oscillation between quark red, green, and blue "colors" (leading in the gluon case to a symmetry known as "asymptotic freedom"). We will discuss strong force symmetry effects, debts, and charges more extensively in row three. (See: "The Strong Force: Two Expressions".)
The baryon is an incredible, miniature universe of structure, information, charge, and activity. A large compound atomic nucleus is a swarming "hive", a veritable metropolis of quantum mechanical action and force exchange, all quite beneath our notice, due to the short-range character of the strong force (in both its "color" and "flavor" expressions). Think the universe of matter is complex? Look no further than a heavy atomic nucleus. Add the busy electron shell, and virtual particles both within and without, electric and magnetic fields, the spacetime metric - even a single atom is almost too much to contemplate. The essential miracle of matter resides within the massive bound energy system of the baryon, and its mysterious, high-energy origin within the early micro-moments of the "Big Bang". (See: "The Origin of Matter and Information".)
Quarks are sub-elementary particles, as they carry
electric charges which are fractions of the unit
electric charge of the leptons; leptons are the only
truly elementary particles. When one considers the
properties of a baryon, it is hard to escape the
impression that this is what a lepton would look like if
it were somehow fractured into three parts. Since, by
definition, you cannot "really" fracture an elementary
particle, perhaps you could do so "virtually", provided
the parts could never become "real" (individually
separated), but remained forever united in combinations
that sum to elementary leptonic charges. In this way,
the fractured particle would still "look like" an
elementary particle to the outside observer; nature is
not above such tricks, as we have learned from the
virtual particles and Heisenberg's "Uncertainty
Principle". It seems probable that baryons are, in some
sense, primordially "fractured" leptons. Such an origin
(the "leptoquark") would go far toward explaining both
the differences and the similarities of these two
fundamental classes of particles (leptons vs hadrons).
Just as the baryon seems to be a fractured lepton, so
the gluons seem to be a fractured photon ("sticky light"
- gluons attract each other) - the fractured field
vector of a fractured electric charge. Hence the strong
force gluon field appears to be a permanently confined
derivative of the electromagnetic force, and both are
strictly symmetric in all their interactions.
As for the masses of the quarks and baryons, they are
due almost entirely to the huge binding energy of the
strong force. See Frank Wilczek's book: :"The
Lightness of Being": Basic Books 2008, for an
expert exposition regarding the mass of hadrons.
Leptons
(row 2, cell 4)
(See: "The
Particle Table")
Collectively, the hadrons and leptons, which comprise the material component of atomic matter (the nucleus, electron shell, and associated neutrinos), are known as "fermions". All fermions have a "spin", or quantized spin angular momentum, in 1/2 integer units of Planck's energy constant (1/2, 3/2, etc.). Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle, which simply states that no two fermions can be in the same place at the same time, if all their quantum numbers are also the same. Fermions cannot pile up on top of one another indiscriminately; they keep their own counsel, which is why we get specific, discreet, sharp, and crystalline atomic structure, rather than goo.
In contrast to the fermions is the class of energy forms known as "bosons", which includes the force carriers or field vectors of the 4 forces: the photons of electromagnetism (the quantum units of light), the gravitons of gravity, and the gluons of the strong force. As their name implies, the IVBs (Intermediate Vector Bosons) of the weak force have some characteristics of both classes, being very massive bosons. Together, the fermions, bosons, and IVBs comprise the particles and forces of matter. Bosons have whole integer spins (0, 1, 2, etc.) and they can and do superimpose or pile up on one another. Thus a photon or graviton can have any energy because it can be composed of an indefinite number of superimposed quanta, whereas an electron has a single, specific "rest mass" energy and charge. The bosons all bear some relationship to light and the metric, their probable common origin. Thus we have the photon (ordinary massless light), the graviton (inverted light or time), the gluon (divided or "sticky" light), and the IVBs (massive light or metric particles). (See: "The Higgs Boson and the Weak Force IVBs".)
Once again we have a natural dichotomy which invites our curiosity, experiment, and speculation: what is the relationship between the quarks and leptons? They seem made for each other - are they indeed made from each other - perhaps both arising from a common ancestor?
I speculate that the ancestral particle of the quarks and leptons is the "leptoquark", the heaviest member of the leptonic elementary particle series. The leptoquark is a lepton at very high (primordial) energy densities, when its quarks are sufficiently compressed (by ambient pressure during the Big Bang) that its color charge vanishes through the principle of "asymptotic freedom". (The gluon field, being composed entirely of color-anticolor charges in all possible combinations, sums to zero when compressed to "leptonic size".) At lower energy densities, the quarks expand under their mutual quantum mechanical and electrical repulsion, causing the color charge to become explicit. The explicit (and conserved) color charge stabilizes the baryon, since neutrinos, which would otherwise cause its decay, do not carry color charge. Through the internal expansion of its 3 quarks, the leptoquark becomes a baryon, decaying eventually to the ground state proton, producing leptons and mesons (via the "W" IVB) along the way, which function as alternative charge carriers for the electric and identity charges of quarks and other leptons. (See: "Introduction to the Weak Force".)
Neutrinos
(See: "Neutrinos
and the Weak Force 'Identity Charge'")
The neutrinos remain mysterious particles and are actively being researched. Apparently neutrinos do have a tiny mass, too small to measure (apparently on the order of one millionth of an electron's mass). If neutrinos do have mass, why is it so small, and how do they escape carrying an electric charge, as do all other massive particles? Is there a 4th "leptoquark" neutrino? What is the smallest possible natural mass quanta? Are neutrinos composite or elementary particles? Does the leptoquark neutrino exist and is it the source of "dark matter"? It is currently believed that neutrinos have a very small mass and "oscillate" between their several possible identities, just as the massive leptons, whose identity charges are carried in "hidden" form, can change identities among themselves via reversible weak force decays (but only when mediated by the IVBs). (See: Science, Vol. 306, 26 Nov. 2004, page 1458.)
Neutrinos were, until recently, thought to be massless leptons with intrinsic motion c. They are now thought to have a tiny mass and to move very nearly at velocity c because they are so energetic when formed. Neutrinos are the explicit form of lepton number ("identity") charge, which is "hidden" or implicit in the massive leptons (and probably also hidden in the massive baryons and the leptoquark). Neutrinos, if they have any mass at all, are so light that they are apparently completely dominated by their deBroglie "matter waves". Hence in the particle-wave spectrum of energy forms, neutrinos are much more wave than particle. (See: "deBroglie Matter Waves".)
Each massive lepton (electron, muon, tau, and
(perhaps) the hypothetical leptoquark) is associated
with a specific neutrino, or number charge, which I
refer to as an "Identity" charge to acknowledge the
symmetry debt carried by the weak force. All photons are
indistinguishable one from another, but the leptons do
not share the photon's "symmetry of anonymity". While
all electrons are identical, they are distinct from the
photon, and from the other elementary particles - the
muon, tau, and leptoquark. Neutrinos are the hallmark of
an elementary particle; they are telling us that there
are only three or four; all else is a composite (or, as
in the case of the quarks, a subunit). Due to Noether's
Theorem, the conservation domain requires this identity
asymmetry to be recognized and accounted for, but nature
is economical in its bookkeeping, concerning itself only
with massive elementary particles. All neutrinos
have left-handed spin, while all anti-neutrinos have
right-handed spin, neatly distinguishing the leptonic
series from its antimatter counterpart. Evidently, these
specific "identity" charges function to facilitate
annihilation reactions between matter and antimatter,
allowing the various particle species to identify their
proper "anti-mates" in a timely fashion. Through the
facilitation of annihilation reactions (which must occur
within the Heisenberg time limit for virtual reality),
the identity charges make a proximate contribution to
conserving light's symmetry. The neutrino's ultimate
symmetry conservation role is to serve as the physical
embodiment of identity charge, which is conserved
through time, can act as an alternative charge carrier
for the weak force "identity" symmetry debt, and is
forever payable upon demand (via annihilation with the
appropriate anti-identity charge). Even though the
neutrino's identity charge "oscillates", it still can
only annihilate the anti-charge of its namesake heavy
lepton. Given the absence of an actual positron, only an
electron anti-neutrino can annihilate, cancel, or
neutralize an electron's identity charge. (See: Gelmini
et al., "Through Neutrino Eyes". Scientific American
May 2010 pages 38 - 45.)
Neutrinos are quanta of information keeping the
symmetry records of spacetime concerning the identity
and number of all massive elementary particles within
its domain. Combined with the metric warpage of
gravitation, we see that spacetime contains an actual
structural "knowledge" of the location, mass, and
identity of every elementary particle. This startling
fact informs us that spacetime is as scrupulous
concerning symmetry conservation as it is concerning raw
energy conservation. We have already noted that
historical spacetime contains a complete causal record
(in the form of information) of all past events. In
scientific terms, we are only beginning to appreciate
how comprehensive is the meaning of the term
"conservation domain" - a concept which the ancients
understood in terms of "karma", the "Akashic Record",
the continuing reality of the historical domain of
ancestors, religious notions of the "afterlife", the
conservation ("salvation") of souls (human "identity"
charges), the spiritual conservation domains of "heaven"
and "hell", etc.
Links:
email:
jag8@cornell.edu
johngowan@earthlink.net
home page
(page 1)
home page
(page 2)
E-Book
References:
